Zapallos: Pumpkins and Squash

The gourds of the Indies are another monstrosity, both in their size and the luxuriance with which they grow, especially those that are native to the land which they call capallos, whose flesh can be eaten, especially during lent, either boiled or stewed.  José de Acosta, 1590[1]

Zapallos (Cucurbita spp.) continue to surprise foreigners as they did Spanish Jesuit and naturalist José de Acosta when he saw them in Peru in the 16^th century.  Some are huge, up to 70 lbs, with vivid yellow-orange flesh inside a hard grey-green rind, and they are among the most popular Chilean vegetables, cultivated on over 5,200 hectares (20+ square miles), an area surpassed only by corn, lettuce, tomatoes and onions.[2]

The most popular is the zapallo camote [3]  (above), a variety of  the native South American Cucurbita maxima, the same species that gives us Hubbard squash, banana squash, and those giant pumpkins that appear in state fairs through out the US Midwest. 

C. maxima was domesticated in Peru and was being grown up and down the pacific coast of South America by 1500-2000 BC. In Chile evidence for agriculture dates to 4000-6000 BC, though the earliest evidence for zapallos comes from 2500-500 BC.[4]   Abbe J. Ignatius Molina (1740-1829) tells us of two types that the Mapuche of South Central Chile were cultivating at the time of conquest [5]:

Writing in the 1860s, Claudio Gay provides more detail:

…zapallos are very abundant in Chile as they are very widely consumed and, like the garbanzo, are always a part of the puchero [stew, cazuela]. For this reason they cultivate a variety, the zapallo hollito, which although very green is of excellent flavor and replaces the common zapallo until it ripens.  There are also other kinds that serve for distinct uses; the alcajota which is used to make sweets; a very large gourd, with a hard shell that is used for trays [and boats (!) bateas]; others that are made into containers of various sizes for keeping seeds, powdered chili, etc., but the most notable variety is the common zapallo whose sweetness is not inferior to the sweetest sweet potatoes and like them is commonly eaten roasted in ovens or over coals. Without doubt it is the sweetest variety…  Its size, usually medium, sometimes reaches a weight of 70 pounds.[6] 

Of the varieties mentioned, only the common zapallo (penca, Mapudungun), gourds, (Lagenaria sicerariaI) and the alcayote are common today.  Gourds are made into vessels for drinking maté, and the Mapuche wada (rattle musical instrument); and spaghetti-squash like alcayote (Cucurbita ficifolia, from the Náhuatl chilacayohtli) is made into a jam or marmelada. 

  

Dulce de Alcayote

  

But if the zapallo hollito seems to have disappeared, it has been replaced by the ubiquitous zucchini; Chile’s zapallo Italiano (C. pepo) which was evidently taken from its native Mexico to Europe were it was developed to its present state in the 19^th century and returned to the Americas in the 1920s.[7] 

 Chilean zapallo italiano and other produce

 

And there is also a round variety, great for stuffing.

Eating zapallos

Zapallo camote is available year round in Chile and is an essential ingredient in many of the most Chilean of Chilean dishes:  cazuela (boiled dinner), charquican (hash of beef, potatoes, zapallo, corn, etc.), porotos granados (shell beans with corn and squash), locro de zapallo (pumpkin stew), carbonada (beef soup, from meat left over from an asado, BBQ), and    ….sopaipillas.

 Sopaipillas with chancaca syrup

Sopaipillas  (Recipe wWw.ElChef.T)

1 cup cooked mashed or sieved zapallo camote (or butternut squash)

3 tablespoon melted shortening

1 teaspoon salt

(1 teaspoon baking powder, optional)

2 cups flour

½ cup hot milk or water

Oil for frying (2 cups or so)

Mix ingredients and form a smooth elastic dough, adding additional flour if necessary.  Roll out to a thickness of ¼ inch and cut into 4 inch rounds.  Perforate rounds in several places with a knife or fork and fry for a minute on each side in 375° oil.  They should be golden but not very dark.

Serve with pebre  or simmered in chancaca (raw sugar) syrup

Chancaca syrup

1 lb. (500 gm) chancaca (or dark brown sugar)
2 cups water (1/2 lt.)

1 cinnamon stick
1 teaspoon (or more to taste) orange peel, removed with vegetable peeler and cut into fine strips

Bring all ingredients to a simmer until completely dissolved.  Add sopapillas and simmer briefly.  Serve hot.

Zapallitos italianos

 Chilean recipes for zucchini cover much the same territory as in other parts of the Americas:  steamed, sautéed, stewed with tomatoes and onions, fried, stuffed, and so on. But my wife’s favorite is a little unusual:

Budín de zapallo italiano (zucchini pudding)

2-3 medium zucchini

1 medium onion, minced

1 marqueta (Chilean French roll or 2 slices home-style bread)

grated cheese, reserving some for topping.

2 eggs

1 tomato

milk

oil

salt, pepper, oregano

Cut zucchini in thick rounds and cook in boiling water until done, but al dente.  Remove and chop into pea-sized pieces.  Drain, and squeeze out as much liquid as possible.  Soak bread in milk and squeeze out liquid.  Sauté onion in oil until translucent.  Mix zucchini, bread, onion and grated cheese (as much or little as you wish, reserving some for topping) add salt, pepper and oregano to taste.  Beat eggs and add to mixture.  Butter a greda de pomaire casserole (or other earthenware dish) and add mixture.  Top with grated cheese and sliced tomatoes.  Bake in 400° until bubbly and brown on top.

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[1] Acosta, José de 2002 (1590) Natural and Moral History of the Indies. Jane E. Mangan, Ed. Duke University Press.  On line at http://books.google.cl

[2] Chilean Agriculture Overview, 2009. Agarian Policies and Studies Bureau, Ministerio de Agricultura.  On line at www.odepa.gob.cl/odepaweb/publicaciones/Panorama2009.pdf

[3] From the Quechua, zapallu and the Náhuatl (Aztec) camohtli, “sweet potato.” The indigenous Mapuche name is penca.

[4] Pearsall, Deborah M. 2008. Plant domestication and the shift to agriculture in the Andes, Chapter 7.  The Handbook of South American Archaeology. P. 112. Eds., Helaine Silverman and William H. Isbell.  On line at http://books.google.cl/books?id=yZr-lxQgJiAC&lpg=PP1&hl=en&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=&f=false

[5] Molina, Juan Ignacio. 1809. The Geographical, Natural and Civil History of Chile.  Middletown, Conn: Longman, Hurst, Rees and Orme. Vol I, p. 110. On line at http://www.archive.org/details/geographicalnat00moligoog

[6] Gay, Claudio. 1862-1865.  Agricultura, Tomo 2. París: En casa del autor; Chile: Museo de Historia Natural de Santiago, p. 112. On line at http://www.memoriachilena.cl/temas/documentodetalle.asp?id=MC0002688

[7] Decker, Deena S. 1989.  Origin(s), evolution, and systematics of Cucurbita pepo (Cucurbitaceae)  Economic Botany 43(4):423-443 On line at http://www.springerlink.com/content/p8l1108434727h40/

Mapuche Food: Ethno Tourism/Ethno Gastronomy

In 1540, when the Spanish arrived in central Chile, they encountered the Mapuche, “people of the land,” south central Chile’s indigenous people. Today, when you travel south form Santiago into Chile’s Araucarian Region you also encounter the Mapuche; if only in the faces of the Chileans and in the Mapudungun names of lakes and communities: Curico, "Black Water;" Melipilla, "Four Devils;" Melipulli: "Four Hills;" Panguipulli: "Hill Of The Puma;" Pichilemu: "Little Forest;” Pucón, “Entrance of the Cordillera:” Temuco, “Temu Water” [1]

But if you want to learn more about the Mapuche, you can--and without being intrusive—through “ethno-tourism.” It is tourism based on participation and planning in conjunction with indigenous communities.

… an increasing number of countries are beginning to work to ensure that tourism not only protects the environment, but also benefits indigenous people, in a trend referred to as "ethno-tourism" or "community-based eco-tourism". The main formula for ethno-tourism involves governments working with aid agencies, such as the Inter-American Development Bank, and private partners to help indigenous communities develop sustainable tourism industries. These initiatives are aimed to help local communities escape from poverty and preserve their natural surroundings while avoiding environmentally destructive activities, like hunting and de-forestation. By partnering with the local communities themselves and giving them ownership, governments help protect the human rights of their people and ensure that local communities benefit from the tourists they host. [2]

I’ve been interested in the Mapuche, and especially Mapuche food and farming, since arriving in Chile. I recently had the opportunity to travel to the Araucarian Region and spend an afternoon with Zunilda Carileufu Colipe, a Mapuche woman who opens her ruca (traditional Mapuche house) to visitors for a meal and an introduction to Mapuche culture. After calling for reservations a couple of days before, we arrived around 1:00 PM.

Zunilda invited us in (speaking Mapudungun at first) and showed us traditional tools and pots from her grandmother; how she spins wool; the preserves she had put up; drying herbs, garlic, chilies and corn; and mementos from her family.

And began cooking.

While she cooked she told us a bit about her life and how she became interesting in sharing her culture; with winka (non-Mapuche, from “Inca”) like us, but more importantly, with children and young people from her community. She feels that discrimination and oppression have beaten down Mapuche of her generation and older to the point that few value and feel pride in their cultural heritage, but children are eager to learn. And Zunilda is both eager to teach and a very good teacher.

Almuerzo was a rich cordero arvejada (lamb stewed with peas), potatoes, sopapillas (fried bread), and pebre (herb salsa).

She made the sopapillas as we watched. She kneaded a tablespoon or so of lard into a soft dough of white flour, yeast and salt that had been resting under a towel, formed small balls of the dough, and rolled them out using a wine bottle for a rolling pin. Then she fried them in hot oil.

The pebre was a mixture of cilantro, parsley and basil, mashed with garlic and a little chili pepper in her grandmother’s mortar, and diluted with water and lemon juice.

We began with the sopapillas and pebre ….and a glass of wine.

The lamb stew, made from a lamb she had raised, had been cooking all morning. She simmered meaty chunks of backbone with garlic and thyme and when it was tender she added peas and a hand full of kernels of corn.

While we were eating she formed the rest of the sopapilla dough into a flat round loaf, and placed it in the hot ashes from the fire to show us how she makes a tortilla de rescoldo (ash baked bread).

We finished with a cup of mint tea, sweetened with freshly made caramel and “coffee” of charred wheat.

Our almuerzo was good, healthy and honest… made from local ingredients cooked in a traditional way. Zunilda is especially concerned about the loss of traditional food habits. Mapuches were practically free of diabetes in 1985; but by 2000, incidence had risen to 3.2% of men and 4.5% of women; increases blamed on dietary changes and reduced exercise as well as changing gender roles.[3]

For various reasons, today’s women cannot devote themselves to learning and cooking the ‘good food.’ The need to be involved in new activities and interests prevents women from spending time caring for their gardens that once provided foods and medicinal plants for the kitchen. A pessimistic diagnosis of this reality [by a Mapuche woman] describes the decline and transformation of this role: “now they cook badly, using poor quality condiments and foods,. They do not spend the time necessary to prepare food and the result is that they are eating poorly… for a variety of reasons now people eat most anything.[4]

 Traditional Mapuche foods

“Tradition” is constantly changing. European foods and cooking techniques that did not exist in the pre-conquest diet had become common by the 17th century (see Feasting with the Enemy: 17th Century Mapuche food), and military defeat in the 1890s and subsequent removal to reducciones (reservations) let to poverty and some malnutrition, but the Mapuche remained largely rural and self sufficient until the last third of the 20th century. [5] Their diet was based on locally produced grains, tubers, vegetables, and meats; augmented by increasing (but limited) amounts of purchased flour, pasta, rice, sugar and oils: foods tabooed in many Mapuche areas in the early 20th century. [6]

That diet is the basis for what is now considered traditional Mapuche food. Anthropologist Noelia H Carrasco recorded the following basic glossary of traditional Mapuche foods currently being eaten in her research area [7]:

Recipes? A lot are available although not many are in English. Here’s a simple one:

Mapuche Food Links:

Mapuche Cooking: From the web site “Being Indigenous” includes a small collection of recipes in English. 

Arte Culinario Mapuche (Mapuche Culinary Art) Includes 27 recipes, in Spanish.  

Cultura Y Alimentación Indígena En Chile (Culture and Indigenous Food in Chile) Includes introductions to each of the indigenous peoples of Chile (including Easter Island) with recipes for traditional foods and new “fusion” recipes. In Spanish.

Manual De Gastronomía Con Identidad Local, Región Araucanía (Manual of Gastronomy with local identity, Araucarian Region). 80 page book about a cooking school for Mapuche women includes many of their family recipes, in Spanish.
Mapunyague:  From the earth to your table. Mapuche food  A blog by Carmen Caripe Catricura, a Mapuche woman who caters Mapuche food.  No recipies, but lots of photos of Mapuche foods. In Spanish.
Lunch at La Nana, Mapuche Cuisine:  A set of excellent photos of Mapuche food by Robyn Lee on flickr.

Mapuche ethnotourism links:

Ruca Mapuche: Zunilda Carileufu Colipe, pictured and discussed above, offers visits to her ruca (traditional Mapuche house) near Caburga including a meal and introductions to Mapuche weaving, cooking, etc. Web site and photo gallery, in Spanish. Reservations: 9-7948180 or 9-5752682

Travel Aid: Located in Pucón, Chile, this organization offers tours of and workshops on Mapuche weaving, language, pottery and cooking. Website in Spanish, English and German.

Trafcura Expediciones: Tours with Spanish/English/French speaking guides centered in the Saltos de Trafcura refuge, near Melipeuco Chile. Web site in Spanish.

Kola Leufu Casa de Campo: Located near Pucón, offers tours, farm day visits, accommodations and Mapuche food.
Mapuche Ethnotourism in Argentina - Ethnotourism near Bariloche.

(Oops, sorry some of  the links above are down.)

More posts on Mapuche food in Eating Chilean:

Mapuche Wheat

Feasting with the Enemy: 17th Century Mapuche food

Eating Piñones

Chilean Corn (Choclo Chileno)

Broad Beans and Peas

Eating Chilean Horse Meat

Eating flax seed (linaza) in Chile

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[1]Toponimia de Chile: Hoy, Puerto Octay, Hullliches… La gente del sur. On line at http://huilliche.blogspot.com/2009/09/toponimia-de-chile-hoy-puerto-octay.html ; Pucón, Wikipedia. On line at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pucón; Temuco, Wikipedia. On line at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temuco.

[2]Eco-tourism expands into ethno-tourism. Sustainable Travel International. On line at http://blog.sustainabletravel.com/ecotourism_expands_into_ethnot.html

[3]Barcelo, Alberto and Rajpathak, Swapnil. Incidence and prevalence of diabetes mellitus in the Americas. Rev Panam Salud Publica [online]. 2001, vol.10, n.5 pp. 300-308 . On line at http://www.scielosp.org/scielo.php?pid=S1020-49892001001100002&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en

[4]Carrasco, Noelia H. 2004. “Antropología de los Problemas Alimentarios Contemporáneos. Etnografía de la Intervención Alimentaria en la Región de la Araucanía, Chile”. Doctoral dissertation, Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain. p. On line at http://www.tesisenxarxa.net/TESIS_UAB/AVAILABLE/TDX-0216105-161938//nch1de1.pdf

[5]Arauco Chihuailaf. 2006. Migraciones mapuche en el siglo XX , Amérique Latine Histoire et Mémoire. Les Cahiers ALHIM, 12. On line at http://alhim.revues.org/index1212.html

[6]Clark, Timothy David. 2007. Culture, Institutional Change, and Food Security: The Case of Three Mapuche Communities in Region IX, Chile. Paper prepared for presentation at the Annual Conference of the Canadian Political Science Association, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, June 1, 2007. On line at http://www.cpsa-acsp.ca/papers-2007/Clark.pdf

[7]Carrasco, Noelia H. Op sit Appendix III, p. xlv

Beans – Porotos granados and others

For the working man

There’s nothing like the blond bean (poroto bayo)

It provides happiness and vigor

And strength like a horse (caballo)

Chilean folk saying[1]

During a trip to Chiloe when I was new(er) to Chile, a group of laughing gypsy women and girls approached my wife and me, asking for money.   I wittily (or so I thought) responded in English:  “Sorry ladies, I have no idea what you are saying.”  To which one responded, ”Puuucha… eres mas chileno que los porotos.”  (“Damn, you’re more Chilean than beans.”)  I was flattered—no one hearing my Spanish would think I was Chilean—and amused to hear this classic Chilean expression. 

Since beans have been Chilean and Chileans have been bean eaters for about 5,000 years[2], the saying has merit.  When the Spanish entered Chile two bean species were being grown, porotos and pallares (respectively common beans, Phaseolus vulgaris, from the Quechua purutu; and lima beans, Phaseolus lunatus from the Quechua, pallar). 

Chilean green beans and cranberry beans, pototos verdes y granados

The Jesuit, Juan Ignacio Molina (1740-1829), writing in his 1787 Compendium of Geographic History, Natural and Civil, of the Kingdom of Chile[3], tells us:

5. The Degul or Phaseolus vulgaris. Before the Spanish entered Chile, the Indians cultivated various species of beans, little different from those in Europe, and among them one notes that one with a straight stalk, that the Indians call cudihuelo, and thirteen climbing varieties, of which the most notable is Phaselous pallar [lunatus] for its seeds of close to an inch; and the borricales,  Phaseolus asellus [vulgaris] whose grains are spherical and buttery.

The Spanish quickly adopted them and porotos became a staple of the Chilean diet for the next 300 years or so, so common that visitors invariably commented on them:

….the peasants form their little chacra, or cultivated spot, for pease, gourds, melons, onions, potatoes, French beans (which dried as frixole¸ forms a main article of their food) and other vegetables. Maria Graham, 1824[4]

….next is the Chilean staff of life, (frigoles).  Kidney beans are the almost constant food of the Chilean laborers, and are to be found at the conventnal [sic], as well as at the tables of the richest inhabitants who deign to eat their “porotos,” (one of the numerous names for the bean). Thomas Sutcliffe, 1841[5]

Chilean consumption of beans is great, serving almost exclusively as food for the miners and peons who work in the cities or the countryside.  For this reason they cultivate them abundantly both in dry and irrigated fields.  …legumes are frequently preferred over meat because of the great abundance and low cost that they are found in Chile. Claudio Gay, 1865[6] 

By the beginning of the 20th century, the diet of working class Chileans begins to be documented by scholars, providing more reliable evidence than the earlier anecdotes. In 1903 students of political economy Guillermo Eyzaguirre Rouse and Jorge Errázuriz Tagle (both later to be elected to the Chilean legislature), published their carefully researched Monograph of a Working Class Family from Santiago.[7]

The basis of the family’s diet is legumes and cereals, such as beans and wheat, and drinks such as tea and coffee.  On most days food is limited to what is strictly necessary to maintain strength, but on some there are great quantities of a single food that we could consider superfluous, if it was not the only thing they ate.

Their three daily family means consisted of a breakfast and supper of coffee with milk (when available) and bread. The main meal, comida, eaten at mid day, was invariably a soup or stew including beef (lamb on Sundays) and vegetables, followed by a

second plate, usually of cereals, beans, corn meal (chuchoca), wheat cereal, potatoes and rice, hulled wheat (mote), or baked squash.  This menu is eaten all year.  Beans represent two thirds of the food.

The (limited) evidence form the 1930s suggests no change. In 1935 the journal Social Service[8] published “A study of the situation of one family” whose home was described as “…very poor, there are no chairs to sit on and the mattresses are made of straw. Needs cleaning.” The daily diet for the family of six was reported as:

            Breakfast—Coffee with milk, 1 bread per person

Dinner [almuerzo]—1 soup/stew [cazuela], 1 plate of legumes

Tea [onces]—Tea with milk, one bread per person.

Supper—Heated leftovers from dinner.

The family’s largest reported food expenses were bread and meat (at $45 each), followed by potatoes, sugar (15 kg.), milk (1 lt. /day), lard, tea, and beans (10 kg.) ($10).

The 1940’s present no improvement, and possibly a decline.  A 1941 study from the same journal found that among 24 families of industrial workers in the San Fernando area 67% had diets of “second or third class,” defined as lacking meat or milk; and among 26 families of agricultural workers in the same area 84% subsisted on second or third class diets.  Although the methodology is far from modern standards, it’s likely that a majority of these families, like their predecessors, were subsisting largely on grains, tubers and legumes—bread, potatoes and beans, plus sugar and lard.[9]

Disappearing Beans

But in the 21st century, things are different. With the return to democracy and reduction in poverty levels from 45% in 1987 to under 20% today, Chile has experienced a “nutritional transition,” from hunger to obesity.[10] 

The progressive rise in overweight and obesity is especially prevalent in low-income groups who improve their income and subsequently buy high-fat/high-carbohydrate energy dense foods.  There is a marked consumer preference in the urban supermarket for sweet and salty high-fat foods; intake of these increases to the detriment of grains, fruits and vegetables.[11]

And especially of beans.  Chile’s dry bean consumption is now estimated at 1.4 kg. per person per year, approximately 1/3 what it was in 1990, and roughly half the US consumption of 3 kg. per capita  (Mexicans average 11 kg./year, Brazilians 18 kg., and Nicaraguans 25 kg.).

What accounts for Chilean’s abandonment of their beloved pototos?  Pascal Leterme and L. Carmenza Muũoz, writing in the British Journal of Nutrition suggest a number of factors.[12]  Increased incomes allow people to buy more meat, which beans traditionally replaced, and increased urbanization, more women in the work force, and long work days away from home have reduced cooking and made processed and fast food more attractive.  And of course, beans (and flatulence) are associated with rural life and the poor; associations status conscious Chileans prefer to avoid.

But all is not lost.  Beans are still with us, at least occasionally.  This week my wife made porotos granados[13], shell beans with squash and corn.   She started with frozen beans, but not even a slow-food Luddite like me would complain.

Her recipe is very similar to the one published in the 1911 Chilean cookbook La Negrita Dotty :

Porotos Granados a la Chilena:

Shell one liter of beans [about 1.5 kg unshelled or 640 gm shelled] and cook in salted water. When they are cooked add: corn cut from two ears, a tablespoon of minced onion, chopped winter squash, calculating that it should be about 1/3 the quantity of the beans.

Salt again and add 50 grams of lard and cook slowly, with little water.

They should be thick; if they are too thin you can add a thickener of flour dissolved in 30 grams of lard lightened with the bean cooking liquid.

My wife cooks the onion in the lard (yes, lard) with a little paprika, and chops the corn in the food processor, which makes the dish porotos granados con mazamora.  And in Chilean tradition, she uses starchy choclos humeros (field corn), not sweet corn, and adds a bit of sweet basil at the end.  (Ferias, farmers' markets, often sell bags of shelled beans + squash, corn and basil all cut and ready for the pot).

If you add a chorizo to each bowl, it should look like this.

While porotos granados is a summer dish, prepared when fresh corn is in the market, the winter version uses dry porotos tortola (AKA porotos burros) or other light colored beans, and adds broken spaghetti to cook with the beans during the last 10 minutes or so, to make Porotos con rienda. 

Green beans are also popular in Chile, usually cut French style and served as salads (and on sandwiches-try it!), or in cazuela.

And the pallares (lima beans)?  They are available, but their popularity is mainly in the north, near Peru, and in the Mapuche regions to the south. 

Pallares with shells, photo Dr. Horacio Larrain Barros

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[1] Plath, Oreste. 1962. La alimentación y los alimentos chilenos en la paremiologia. Santiago: Servicio Nacuional de Salud. P. 21. On line at http://www.memoriachilena.cl/archivos2/pdfs/MC0031704.pdf

[2] Oriana Pardo B., José Luis Pizarro T. 2005. Especies botánicas consumidas por los chilenos prehispánicos. Colección Chile Precolombino. Editorial Mare Nostrum, Santiago,

Chile. On line at http://books.google.cl/books?id=k0wSxTyJ3xQC&pg=PA84&lpg=PA84&dq=cudihuelo&source=bl&ots=Au7BAP6Pt9&sig=L3-m9fzp62NWcyK45tDUkNFDt_Y&hl=en&ei=7AZ8S5-oNdWUtgfitu2qBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result#v=onepage&q=cudihuelo&f=false

[3] Molina, Juan Ignacio.  1808.   Compendio de la historia geográfica, natural y civil del Reyno de Chile. Translated from the Itaialian by Domingo Joseph de Arquellada Mendoza. Madrid: Don

Antgonio de Sancha. P. 136 On line at http://www.memoriachilena.cl/temas/documento_detalle.asp?id=MC0005915 

[4] Graham, Maria. 1824. Journal of a Residence in Chile, During the Year 1822.  London: Longman, Hurst, etc. p. 302. On line at http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=Journal%20of%20a%20residence%20in%20Chile%20AND%20mediatype:texts

[5] Sutcliffe, Thomas. 1841 Sixteen years in Chile and Peru from 1822 to 1839.  London: Fisher.  p. 238.  on line at http://www.archive.org/details/sixteenyearsinch00sutcuoft

[6] Gay, Claudio. 1862-1865.  Agricultura, Tomo 2. París: En casa del autor; Chile: Museo de Historia Natural de Santiago, p. 102. On line at http://www.memoriachilena.cl/temas/documentodetalle.asp?id=MC0002688

[7] Eyzaguirre Rouse, Guillermo & Jorge Errázuriz Tagle. 1903. Monografía de una familia obrera de Santiago. Santiago, Chile : Imprenta Barcelona. On line at http://www.memoriachilena.cl/temas/documentodetalle.asp?id=MC0001500  [Note the elite Basque-German family names and subsequent careers in law and politics; one wonders how their investigation of the life of this family may have affected their later lives.]

[8] Carreño, B.  1935 Estudio de la situación de una familia. Servicio Social 9(4):309-316.  On line at http://www.memoriachilena.cl/temas/documento_detalle.asp?id=MC0016107

[9] Cortéz Jullian, Chela.  1941.  Estudio comparativa de la situación económico-social de dos grupos de obreros, uno agrícola y otro industrial, de la region de San Fernando.  Servicio Social 15(3): 111-147.  On line at http://www.memoriachilena.cl/temas/documento_detalle.asp?id=MC0016108

[10] Chile: Successes and Failures in Poverty Eradication. World Bank, Shanghai Poverty Conference:  Case Study Summary.  On line at http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/reducingpoverty/case/24/summary/Chile%20Summary.pdf

[11] Albala C, Vio F, Kain J, Uauy R.  2002 Nutrition transition in Chile: determinants and consequences. Public Health Nutrition 5: 123-128. Cambridge University Press. On line at  http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayFulltext?type=1&fid=566784&jid=PHN&volumeId=5&issueId=1a&aid=566776

12 Pascal Leterme and L. Carmenza Muũoz. 2002. Factors influencing pulse consumption in Latin America. British Journal of Nutrition, 88, pp 251-254 On line at http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayFulltext?type=1&fid=909128&jid=BJN&volumeId=88&issueId=S3&aid=909120

¹³ The term porotos granados refers to fresh mature beans, removed from the shell, “shell beans” in American English; to the dish of cooked beans discussed above; and to the variety of beans in the photo, cranberry beans in English