German-Chilean food / Comida chilena-alemana

On my first day in Chile, I crossed the river from my hostel to Bellavista, Santiago’s “Bohemian” neighborhood, sat down at an out door cafe and ordered a beer in my usually serviceable gringo Spanish.

Me:  “A beer please.”

Waiter: “A schop?”     

Me:  “Ah… a beer, I’ll have a beer.”

Waiter, with irritation, while making beer stein gestures:  “A schop, you want a schop?”

Me: “Okay, okay, I’ll have a schop.”

Waiter: “Escudo?”

Me: “Excuse me?”

Not a great beginning for gringo Spanish in Chile.

Photo: El Birrerio

As it turns out schop, from the German schoppen, is Chilean for a draft beer and Escudo (shield) is one of the most popular Chilean beers—a descendant of beer made by German immigrant Carl (Carlos) Anwandter who established his brewery in Valdivia, in south central Chile, in 1851.

Carlos Anwandter was among the earliest of some 11,000 Germans who immigrated to Chile between 1846 and 1914, about half of whom settled in the southern frontier zone.  There they established German-speaking communities that included many skilled craftsmen and professionals: beer-brewers, tanners, furniture makers, pharmacists, professors and scientific investigators.[1]  Today 500,000 to 600,000 descendants claim German ancestry and German-Chileans are prominent in all aspects of Chilean life:  politics, business, academia, art, and of course, brewing and food service. 

German restaurants, serving a wide variety of German (and German-Chilean) dishes are common in Santiago and surrounding areas.  Some of the best known are the chain Bavaria, Tante Marlene, and Restaurant Der Münchner, below.

 

But perhaps the most popular are the German-Chilean cafes and schoperías (beer joints) where you can have a beer and anything from a sandwich to a full meal.  Among the best known are the Santiago classics  Fuente Alemana, and the Elkika Ilmenau, or the chain Tip y Top. All serve everything mentioned here along with German sausage plates, hamburgers, hot dogs, and Chilean sandwiches like churrascos (steak), “Barros Lucos,” (hot beef and cheese), and lomitos (below). 

 The lomito completo (roast pork sandwich with sauerkraut, tomatoes, avocado and mayonnaise) at Elkika.

German influences in Chilean cuisine

Naturally, Germans immigrants influenced regular Chilean cuisine, especially in the south, but also nationally. Today kuchenes, German influenced cakes, and a sprinkling of other German dishes are widely integrated into Chilean diet. 

Chilean kuchen

Kuchen, “cake” in German, is among the most mobile of German foods; it seems to have migrated into the national cuisines everywhere Germans settled.  Kuchen is the official state dessert of North Dakota; it’s popular in Brazil under the name cuca, where it usually refers to a banana cake  with a streusel topping; and in Argentina as torta alemana or simply as kuchen.

While Kuchen can refer to a wide variety of cakes in German, in Chile kuchen is a pastry with a crust of firm cake or crisp tart dough topped with fruit and sometimes streusel (a crumb topping of flour, sugar and butter). The classic Chilean cookbook, La Gran Cocina Chilena includes 17 Kuchen recipes.[2]  No onces, a light Chilean meal like tea taken in the early evening, is complete without a kuchen.

Kuchen de frutillas (strawberry kuchen, right),

Photo and recipe in English from Canela Kitchen

Kuchen de Quesillo (fresh cheese kuchen with blueberries, below)

Photo and recipe in Spanish from La Cocina de Latimer

For a recipe in ‘English see Rick Cooks

 

And for the most Chilean of all, there is the Chilean Flag kuchen, from Pasteleria Mozart in Santiago.

Pernil – pork hock

While kuchen is the most widely appreciated German-Chilean dish, pernil certainly has its advocates.  Pernil means “leg” or “shoulder” (as in pork “picnic” shoulder) in traditional Spanish, but in Chile a pernil is a generous pork hock, usually served boiled with mashed potatoes or sauerkraut (chocrut).  Peel away the thick layer of skin and fat and the meat below is succulent and meltingly tender.

Pernil with puré -  photo: felipemarques' photostream

It is found in German-Chilean restaurants, but also where no other obviously German dishes appear on the menu.  In this restaurant sign from Orsono, it is the “Suggestion of the Day”, served with sauerkraut, pebre (Chilean salsa) and Chilean spicy mashed potatoes

Roasted pernil (the German schweinshaxe) is also popular and is sold in some supermarkets, cooked on a rotisserie like chicken. 

Photo logosorno's photostream

Chocrut – sauerkraut

Where there’s pernilI, there must be chocrut.  The earliest ChileanSauerkraut recipes I’ve found come from La Negrita Doddi, the French influenced 1911cookbook. They are Ganso (goose) a la choucrute and Choucrute al la alemana (German stile). Both use the French spelling “choucrute” and neither actually uses sauerkraut (fermented cabbage), but cabbage blanched in boiling water and drained, then simmered with onion, sausage and bacon – and goose in the first recipe. A similar recipe occurs in the 1882 Nuevo manual de cocina where it is called simply “partridges with cabbage” (perdices con repollo, p.72).  All (or none) may reflect the influence of German immigrants who began arriving in 1846.  Today in Chile sauerkraut is most commonly found on a completo, a Chilean hotdog with tomatoes, sauerkraut, avocado and abundant mayonnaise; or on other sandwiches.

Asado Aleman (“German roast” AKA meatloaf)

Chilean asado aleman, like pernil, is found on the menus of Chilean restaurants with no other “German” dishes. It often includes hard boiled eggs and sometimes cooked carrots. The meat is usually ground beef combined with milk-soaked bread and eggs, sautéed onions and perhaps garlic, paprika or oregano.

Photo and recipe in Spanish: Corazón de Alcachofa

Similar recipes are found all over Latin America under the names “albondigon” (big meatball), or molde de carne (mold of meat), although characteristically the Chilean version tends to be among the simplest and least highly seasoned.   

Escalopa Kaiser – beef cordon bleu

Milinesas or escalopas, thin cutlets of meat, coated in bread crumbs and fried, are popular throughout Latin America as well as in Europe.  They seem to have been in Chile before there was much German influence, appearing in the 1882 Chilean cookbook, Nuevo manual de cocina as biftek rebozado (breaded steak).  But today’s version, the Escalopa Kaiser, certainly owes its origin (or at least its name) to German immigration.  It is two slices of beef with sliced ham and cheese sandwiched between, the whole breaded and fried.  They are popular and served widely, as the one below (which appears to be chicken) at the Oktober Fest 2008, Malloco, Chile.

 “Daniel, happy with his Escalopa Kaiser”

Alvaro Farfan's photostream

Crudos – steak tartare (literally “raws”)

While Chile’s most famous crudos are served at the Café Haussmann in Valdivia, they are also popular in Santiago and other cities, especially as bar food.  Everyone in Valdivia seems to have a version of the “authentic” Café Haussmann recipe, each one a little different.

Crudos served at Café Haussmann, Valdivia      Photo Wkipedia 

Crudos, Café Haussmann, Valdivia

1 Kg. (2 ¼ lb)  beef rump roast, finely ground
6 eggs
 Mix the beef and eggs and serve over toast with chopped onions.  You may add lemon juice, minced green Chilean chilies in olive oil and Haussamnn’s sauce: equal parts of mayonnaise and cream (some say yogurt), salt and cilantro.  (To prevent the beef from discoloring add lemon juice with eggs.)

Here’s another version, from Ana María Springer Hitschfeld of Frutillar, a German-Chilean town in the south.

Crudos, Cabañas El Tirol

800 gm. (1 ¾ lb.) beef rump roast, finely ground
Chopped chives, 2 bunches
2 tablespoons capers
3 grated dill pickles
1 egg yolk
Lemon juice
Salt
Freshly ground pepper to taste
Variety of breads

Mix meat, chopped chives, capers, pickle, egg yolk (optional), lemon juice, salt and pepper.  Serve molded on a plate with variety of breads.

Other German-Chilean foods

Other classic German foods, purple cabbage, smoked pork chops, rye bread, German style sausages (bratwurst, weisswurst, etc.) are occasionally (some regularly) available in Chilean supermarkets (Jumbo for example), but are not really integrated into Chilean cuisine.   And of course hot dogs and hamburgers are ubiquitous; although they seem to be only indirectly German – via the USA.

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[1] German Genealogy: Chile. On line at http://www.genealogy.net/reg/WELT/chile.html

[2] Alfaro, Mónica T. 2000. La Gran Cocina Chilena, 8th Edition.  Santiago:  Ediciones Occidente S.A. p. 416

Eating Chilean Horse Meat

Señora Ercilla Curiche, Mapuche Kimche (wise elder) speaks about some of the food she ate as a child:

We ate meat; pork, lamb, horse.  But the meat wasn’t cooked like it is today; it was semi-cooked, people only cooked it a little and then ate it; especially horse meat.  This helped, providing more energy and taking greater advantage of this type of food, of meat.  Today the children haven’t had an opportunity to know these foods that we grandparents had. They only eat artificial foods, foods that contain a lot of sugar and that don’t promote physical or intellectual growth. This is the reality that today’s children encounter.[1]

For many the idea of eating horse meat is abhorrent, emotionally akin to eating the family pet.  But for much of the world (and until recently in England and the US) it is an accepted food; reminiscent perhaps of harder times, but accepted.  Among Chile’s Mapuche and others with rural origins it also engenders emotions; but here it means wholesome, natural and traditional, in contrast to the sugar, salt and chemical laden industrial foods that fill our supermarkets and children.

Horses have a long history as food in Europe and Asia, from the Paleolithic horse hunt pictured in France's Lascaux cave (left), to today’s horse meat butcher shops in Rome’s Testaccio Market (below right).

But horses, which evolved in the Americas before spreading to Asia, went extinct here 11 to 12,000 years ago and were absent until the Spanish reintroduced them.  The first horses came to Chile briefly in 1535, with the unsuccessful expedition of Diego de Almagro, but the first permanent herds owe their arrival to Pedro de Valdivia’s expedition in 1540.  By 1544, selective breeding conducted by Father Rodrigo Gonzalez Marmolejo began, leading to the development of the Chilean horse, the oldest registered breed in the Americas[2].


Lautaro (Pedro Subercaseaux)

 The Mapuche, the native people of south central Chile, first encountered horses in battle with the invading conquistadors and were no match for the mounted Spanish warriors with their iron weapons and amour.  At first, according to legend, they thought the horses and their riders were a single beast, but they soon learned that horse and rider were separate and mortal. After suffering disastrous defeats in the hands of the Spanish in the early years, Lautaro a young Mapuche captive, son of a chief and stable boy for Pedro De Valdivia, escaped on horseback taking with him knowledge of riding and the tactics necessary to defeat the Spanish.   He became the Mapuche military leader, united the bands into an effective fighting force, and defeated the Spanish at fort Tucapel.  Pedro de Valdivia came to the defeated fort and while camped in the ruins was attacked by Lautaro’s forces, defeated, captured and executed.[3]  


While the Chilean conquistadores tried to keep horses out of Mapuche hands, Spanish retreating from Buenos Aires abandoned a dozen or more, and by 1580 their descendants and other escaped horses had grown to 12,000 head.[4]  By 1600 constant Spanish attacks had decimated the Mapuche and transformed them from a largely sedentary, riverine culture of farmers into mobile equestrian bands of warrior-herders, and trade across the Andes supplied the Mapuche with more horses than the Spaniards had.  They were to hold the Spanish, and later the Chilean, armies at bay for the next 250 years.  The key was their horses, which became central to Mapuche culture. 

The meat of their horses became, and remains today, their favorite food, the melted fat and blood their drink. Blood sausage was reserved for the owner of a horse or mare that had been ceremonially sacrificed. Blood was also used to wash their hair and to gain strength through its magical powers; the beating heart cured respiratory illnesses of children. Its fat burned in lamps. Travel shelters were made with horse skins, the hair inside. Skin also made their beds, cloaks, loin cloths, women’s aprons and boots. With the leather they made lariats, reins, saddles. The manes were used to make ropes and the weskel (a ring men used to increase sexual pleasure).

Having become integrated into the daily life of the Mapuche, the horse was also incorporated into ceremonies related to the supernatural world. In the nguillatún [the major annual ceremony] it was sacrificed and along with the riding equipment formed part of the funereal goods that accompanied its owner to the other side of the mythical sea.[5] 

Horse meat in Chile today

Today, over four centuries after the Mapuche obtained horses, they continue to be central to the culture, and horse meat continues to be eaten; and not just by Mapuche.  No data is available on the percentage of Chileans who eat horse meat, but a recent study of dietary habits of 200 Mapuche residents of the Santiago region found that it is eaten by 31% of households surveyed.[6]  Overall, Chilean horse meat consumption averages only 600 grams per person per year, but it is higher than lamb, at 400 grams.  Chile has some 200 equine butcher shops, mostly located in working class neighborhoods in Santiago and to the south.  The meat is “of good quality and, well presented in defined cuts similar to beef cuts.”  Chile also has some 33 horse meat processing plants, making cold cuts and sausages. Horse meat jerky is available in super markets... at least occasionally.

Equine butcher shops in Temuco.  Photo Credit:  lorhuc

Temuco, capital of Chile’s Araucanía Region, heartland of Mapuche culture, has 20 or more equine butcher shops for a population of a little over a 260,000.  An article called “Boom in horse meat” in the July 4, 2005 edition of the Austral, the region's daily newspaper, reported:

Perhaps the most characteristic equine butcher shop is Carnes Salazar [Salazar Meats] with several decades of experience.  The owners Cristina, David and Pablo, follow the path of their father, Sergio, specializing in horse meat. "Consumption has grown a lot.  The people like it because it has changed greatly. Before they thought that it was smelly and tough, from cart horses.” Their animals are cleanly raised and provide a tasty and tender meat.  As a meat market they sell three 1300 lb. horse carcasses a week. A fattened house provides a tender and tasty product.  A thin horse, on the other hand, yields tough meat. Prices for the animal have increased, due to the high demand. Now there are more meat markets too.  

Carnes Salazar buys animals from producers in the south and also from a specialized horse fattener in Talca.  “People have learned a lot about this meat. Sometimes they bought it not knowing that it was horse and then returned to congratulate us.  They change their minds quickly."  Carnes Salazar has become known for selling their seasoned churrasco [sandwich steak].  The consumption of this meat is democratic.  All socioeconomic levels look for it.  The rural people look for cuts with bone to prepare the traditional cazuela.[7]

In Temuco’s Pinto market, another equine butcher with 22 years of experience has a sligltly different take on his customers:  “Sixty to 70% of out consumers are rural people.  The Mapuche have taught the people of Temuco to eat this meat, and they now consume a lot.  It’s much healthier.”

Nutritionally, he is correct; horse meat is nutritionally superior to more common meats: lower in fat, calories and cholesterol, and higher in protein.[8]

 

My experience with horse meat was in Temuco, in the Mapuche restaurant Kokavi where I had horse steak.  It was tender and flavorful, cooked medium-well.  The taste was very much like beef.

  




While Kokavi is an unpretentious neighborhood restaurant, favored by local Mapuche and winka (non-Mapuche), horse meat is also served in more elegant venues.  Mapuche Chef Juan Carlos Quiñeman of Santiago’s Hotel Four Points by Sheridan recently won the silver medal in the XXIII National Concourse of Gastronomy in the traditional cuisine category for his Koru Kawell con Tukun e Iwiñkofke, a cazuela of horse meat with toasted wheat, served with fried squash-dough breads and a relish of wheat hominy, tomatoes and chili.  You may not find cazuela de caballo con locro y sopaipillas con pebre de mote every day at the dining room of the Four Points, but Chef Quiñeman is there:

 

“I’ve always been restless to do something related to my roots with distinct flavor because it is prepared by someone who carries the blood.  They are memories that come from my childhood,” he explains.[9]

Chef Juan Carlos Quiñeman

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[1] Actas de los diálogos interculturales entre cosmovisiones científicas y mapuche, Segunda Asamblea Plenaria. On line at http://www.mapuche.info/mapuint/DialogoIntercultural5.html. (Unless otherwise noted, all translations are mine.)

[2] The Chilean Horse: Americas Oldest Horse. On line at http://www.chileanhorse.com/index.php?option=com_frontpage&Itemid=1

[3] Battle of Tucapel, Wikipedia. On line at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tucapel

[4] Criollo (horse), Wikipedia.  On line at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criollo_(horse)

[5] Ulloa, Gonzalo. 2010 El caballo: el recurso que revolucionó al mundo mapuche. Revista Travesía. 13 February, 2010 On line at http://www.travesiaweb.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=26&Itemid=2

[6]  Schnettler, Berta, Huaiquinir, Valeska, Mora, Marcos et al. Diferencias étnicas y de aculturación en el consumo de alimentos en la Región Metropolitana de Santiago, Chile. ALAN, dic. 2009, vol.59, no.4, p.407-418  On line at http://alanrevista.org/ediciones/2009-4/art9.asp

[7] Avilés, Hardy. 2005 El boom de la carne de caballo: Crece en forma "galopante" El Austral, Reportajes.  July 4, 2005.  On line at http://www.renacerdeangol.cl/prontus4_noticias/antialone.html?page=http://www.renacerdeangol.cl/prontus4_noticias/site/artic/20050704/pags/20050704055057.html
[8] Luengo, Juan. El caballo: una alternativa en el consumo actual de carnes. TECNO VET: Año 7 N°3, diciembre 2001. On line at http://www.tecnovet.uchile.cl/CDA/tecnovet_articulo/0,1409,SCID%253D9611%2526ISID%253D467,00.html
[9] Mundaca, Gianina.  Al rescate de la cocina mapuche.  Km Cero.  On line at http://www.kilometrocero.cl/2009/11/al-rescate-de-la-cocina-mapuche/

Mapuche Food: Ethno Tourism/Ethno Gastronomy

In 1540, when the Spanish arrived in central Chile, they encountered the Mapuche, “people of the land,” south central Chile’s indigenous people. Today, when you travel south form Santiago into Chile’s Araucarian Region you also encounter the Mapuche; if only in the faces of the Chileans and in the Mapudungun names of lakes and communities: Curico, "Black Water;" Melipilla, "Four Devils;" Melipulli: "Four Hills;" Panguipulli: "Hill Of The Puma;" Pichilemu: "Little Forest;” Pucón, “Entrance of the Cordillera:” Temuco, “Temu Water” [1]

But if you want to learn more about the Mapuche, you can--and without being intrusive—through “ethno-tourism.” It is tourism based on participation and planning in conjunction with indigenous communities.

… an increasing number of countries are beginning to work to ensure that tourism not only protects the environment, but also benefits indigenous people, in a trend referred to as "ethno-tourism" or "community-based eco-tourism". The main formula for ethno-tourism involves governments working with aid agencies, such as the Inter-American Development Bank, and private partners to help indigenous communities develop sustainable tourism industries. These initiatives are aimed to help local communities escape from poverty and preserve their natural surroundings while avoiding environmentally destructive activities, like hunting and de-forestation. By partnering with the local communities themselves and giving them ownership, governments help protect the human rights of their people and ensure that local communities benefit from the tourists they host. [2]

I’ve been interested in the Mapuche, and especially Mapuche food and farming, since arriving in Chile. I recently had the opportunity to travel to the Araucarian Region and spend an afternoon with Zunilda Carileufu Colipe, a Mapuche woman who opens her ruca (traditional Mapuche house) to visitors for a meal and an introduction to Mapuche culture. After calling for reservations a couple of days before, we arrived around 1:00 PM.

Zunilda invited us in (speaking Mapudungun at first) and showed us traditional tools and pots from her grandmother; how she spins wool; the preserves she had put up; drying herbs, garlic, chilies and corn; and mementos from her family.

And began cooking.

While she cooked she told us a bit about her life and how she became interesting in sharing her culture; with winka (non-Mapuche, from “Inca”) like us, but more importantly, with children and young people from her community. She feels that discrimination and oppression have beaten down Mapuche of her generation and older to the point that few value and feel pride in their cultural heritage, but children are eager to learn. And Zunilda is both eager to teach and a very good teacher.

Almuerzo was a rich cordero arvejada (lamb stewed with peas), potatoes, sopapillas (fried bread), and pebre (herb salsa).

She made the sopapillas as we watched. She kneaded a tablespoon or so of lard into a soft dough of white flour, yeast and salt that had been resting under a towel, formed small balls of the dough, and rolled them out using a wine bottle for a rolling pin. Then she fried them in hot oil.

The pebre was a mixture of cilantro, parsley and basil, mashed with garlic and a little chili pepper in her grandmother’s mortar, and diluted with water and lemon juice.

We began with the sopapillas and pebre ….and a glass of wine.

The lamb stew, made from a lamb she had raised, had been cooking all morning. She simmered meaty chunks of backbone with garlic and thyme and when it was tender she added peas and a hand full of kernels of corn.

While we were eating she formed the rest of the sopapilla dough into a flat round loaf, and placed it in the hot ashes from the fire to show us how she makes a tortilla de rescoldo (ash baked bread).

We finished with a cup of mint tea, sweetened with freshly made caramel and “coffee” of charred wheat.

Our almuerzo was good, healthy and honest… made from local ingredients cooked in a traditional way. Zunilda is especially concerned about the loss of traditional food habits. Mapuches were practically free of diabetes in 1985; but by 2000, incidence had risen to 3.2% of men and 4.5% of women; increases blamed on dietary changes and reduced exercise as well as changing gender roles.[3]

For various reasons, today’s women cannot devote themselves to learning and cooking the ‘good food.’ The need to be involved in new activities and interests prevents women from spending time caring for their gardens that once provided foods and medicinal plants for the kitchen. A pessimistic diagnosis of this reality [by a Mapuche woman] describes the decline and transformation of this role: “now they cook badly, using poor quality condiments and foods,. They do not spend the time necessary to prepare food and the result is that they are eating poorly… for a variety of reasons now people eat most anything.[4]

 Traditional Mapuche foods

“Tradition” is constantly changing. European foods and cooking techniques that did not exist in the pre-conquest diet had become common by the 17th century (see Feasting with the Enemy: 17th Century Mapuche food), and military defeat in the 1890s and subsequent removal to reducciones (reservations) let to poverty and some malnutrition, but the Mapuche remained largely rural and self sufficient until the last third of the 20th century. [5] Their diet was based on locally produced grains, tubers, vegetables, and meats; augmented by increasing (but limited) amounts of purchased flour, pasta, rice, sugar and oils: foods tabooed in many Mapuche areas in the early 20th century. [6]

That diet is the basis for what is now considered traditional Mapuche food. Anthropologist Noelia H Carrasco recorded the following basic glossary of traditional Mapuche foods currently being eaten in her research area [7]:

Recipes? A lot are available although not many are in English. Here’s a simple one:

Mapuche Food Links:

Mapuche Cooking: From the web site “Being Indigenous” includes a small collection of recipes in English. 

Arte Culinario Mapuche (Mapuche Culinary Art) Includes 27 recipes, in Spanish.  

Cultura Y Alimentación Indígena En Chile (Culture and Indigenous Food in Chile) Includes introductions to each of the indigenous peoples of Chile (including Easter Island) with recipes for traditional foods and new “fusion” recipes. In Spanish.

Manual De Gastronomía Con Identidad Local, Región Araucanía (Manual of Gastronomy with local identity, Araucarian Region). 80 page book about a cooking school for Mapuche women includes many of their family recipes, in Spanish.
Mapunyague:  From the earth to your table. Mapuche food  A blog by Carmen Caripe Catricura, a Mapuche woman who caters Mapuche food.  No recipies, but lots of photos of Mapuche foods. In Spanish.
Lunch at La Nana, Mapuche Cuisine:  A set of excellent photos of Mapuche food by Robyn Lee on flickr.

Mapuche ethnotourism links:

Ruca Mapuche: Zunilda Carileufu Colipe, pictured and discussed above, offers visits to her ruca (traditional Mapuche house) near Caburga including a meal and introductions to Mapuche weaving, cooking, etc. Web site and photo gallery, in Spanish. Reservations: 9-7948180 or 9-5752682

Travel Aid: Located in Pucón, Chile, this organization offers tours of and workshops on Mapuche weaving, language, pottery and cooking. Website in Spanish, English and German.

Trafcura Expediciones: Tours with Spanish/English/French speaking guides centered in the Saltos de Trafcura refuge, near Melipeuco Chile. Web site in Spanish.

Kola Leufu Casa de Campo: Located near Pucón, offers tours, farm day visits, accommodations and Mapuche food.
Mapuche Ethnotourism in Argentina - Ethnotourism near Bariloche.

(Oops, sorry some of  the links above are down.)

More posts on Mapuche food in Eating Chilean:

Mapuche Wheat

Feasting with the Enemy: 17th Century Mapuche food

Eating Piñones

Chilean Corn (Choclo Chileno)

Broad Beans and Peas

Eating Chilean Horse Meat

Eating flax seed (linaza) in Chile

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[1]Toponimia de Chile: Hoy, Puerto Octay, Hullliches… La gente del sur. On line at http://huilliche.blogspot.com/2009/09/toponimia-de-chile-hoy-puerto-octay.html ; Pucón, Wikipedia. On line at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pucón; Temuco, Wikipedia. On line at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temuco.

[2]Eco-tourism expands into ethno-tourism. Sustainable Travel International. On line at http://blog.sustainabletravel.com/ecotourism_expands_into_ethnot.html

[3]Barcelo, Alberto and Rajpathak, Swapnil. Incidence and prevalence of diabetes mellitus in the Americas. Rev Panam Salud Publica [online]. 2001, vol.10, n.5 pp. 300-308 . On line at http://www.scielosp.org/scielo.php?pid=S1020-49892001001100002&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en

[4]Carrasco, Noelia H. 2004. “Antropología de los Problemas Alimentarios Contemporáneos. Etnografía de la Intervención Alimentaria en la Región de la Araucanía, Chile”. Doctoral dissertation, Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain. p. On line at http://www.tesisenxarxa.net/TESIS_UAB/AVAILABLE/TDX-0216105-161938//nch1de1.pdf

[5]Arauco Chihuailaf. 2006. Migraciones mapuche en el siglo XX , Amérique Latine Histoire et Mémoire. Les Cahiers ALHIM, 12. On line at http://alhim.revues.org/index1212.html

[6]Clark, Timothy David. 2007. Culture, Institutional Change, and Food Security: The Case of Three Mapuche Communities in Region IX, Chile. Paper prepared for presentation at the Annual Conference of the Canadian Political Science Association, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, June 1, 2007. On line at http://www.cpsa-acsp.ca/papers-2007/Clark.pdf

[7]Carrasco, Noelia H. Op sit Appendix III, p. xlv